Viking Sagas Eddas Ancient Medieval Norsemen Legends Myths Valkyrs Valhalla Odin For Sale

Myths of the Norsemen From the Eddas and Sagas by H.A. Guerber, with 64 Illustrations.

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DESCRIPTION: Hardcover with dustjacket: 480 pages. Publisher: Studio Editions (1993). Size: 8¾ x 5¾ x 1¾ inches; 1½ pounds. From his exalted throne, a mighty watchtower, Odin surveys the world; a world of gods, giants, elves, dwarfs, and men. Below, the Valkyrs ride forth, their golden hair streaming through the clouds, the pale northern sun glinting on shields and spears. Through the battlefields they swoop, bringing the kiss of death to the warriors bound for Valhalla, hall of the chosen slain.

The myths of the Norsemen are darkly romantic, heroic and tragic. For sheer adventure and high drama, they are without equal. Their sagas are stirring tales that are as powerful now as they were a thousand years ago. But less well known are the stories themselves, stories with all the classic qualities of a long-lost age. Valor, nobility, and a triumphant greatness of spirit. These were the human attributes the medieval Norsemen admired most. What dazzling inspiration for young Viking warriors these tales must have been, vividly told beside blazing fires on dark and frozen nights.

Their preservation, from the oral tradition to the prose sagas that have come down to us, owes much to the Norse colonization of Iceland. Here the art of storytelling lived on, vivid, dramatic, and realistic. The stories feature well-defined characters, colorfully portrayed. For deeply imbued with the values of the Norsemen though they were, the intention was entertainment, the emphasis on action and pace. And on these northerly shores, the sweep of Christianity across Europe was delayed long enough to allow learned men, proud of their pagan past, to adapt the art of storytelling to the written word.

During the early part of the thirteenth century, the “Eddas” were collected together, masterpieces of Norse mythology that included the tragic death of Balder; the comic tale of Thor’s journey to the land of giants; and linked the cycle of the Nibelungen with the sagas preserved from Norway. “The Norsemen” provides an enjoyable digest of these ancient sagas, with running commentary as well as an invaluable glossary of a multitude of characters, including Frigga, queen of the gods; Thor, with his magic hammer; Brunhild, Freya, Hel, Loki, god of fire; Sigmund, Sigurd and hundreds more, including even werewolves. Includes 64 illustrations reproduced from classic paintings depict the deeds and heroes of the North.

CONDITION: VERY GOOD. Unread (and in that sense "new) hardcover w/dustjacket. Studio Editions (1993) 480 pages. Unblemished except for very mild shelfwear to dustjacket and covers, faint age blemishing, and a faint "injury" to about a dozen pages. Let's start with the faint injury...that being that about a dozen pages toward the center of the book have a tiny (1/4 inch) crinkle and/or tear at fore-edge (near the center of the fore-edge). Typically this is the result of the (fore-edge) surface of the massed closed page edges being hit against the sharp cover corner of an adjacent book as the book is (hastily and carelessly) shelved. The unyielding sharp cover corner of the adjacent book mangles/tears the edges of a few (or more) pages of the book it is struck against. It's a common injury to otherwise "new" books. Except for those dozen pages with a tiny spot at the fore-edge which is so "injured", the pages are pristine; clean, crisp, unmarked, (otherwise) unmutilated, tightly bound, unambiguously unread. We would however draw attention to the fact that the edges of the massed closed page edges are faintly age-tanned. This is really only easily discerned only when book is closed, not to individual pages, only to the mass of closed page edges (sometimes referred to as the "page block"). However if you inspect the open pages closely, you can also detect (mild) tanning to the open edges of the pages. Of course, the book is almost 30 years old and the pages are not of acid-free paper. The edge and corner shelfwear mentioned above is principally in the form of faint "crinkling" to the dustjacket spine head, heel, and the dustjacket open corners (or "tips" as they are oftentimes called). The "tips" of course are formed where the dustjacket folds beneath the covers to form the dustjacket flaps, i.e., the "open corners" of the dustjacket (top and bottom, front and back). And by "faint", we mean precisely that, literally. It requires that you hold the book up to a light source, tilting it this way and that so as to catch the reflected light, and scrutinize it fairly closely to discern the faint shelfwear. Beneath the dustjacket the covers are clean and unsoiled, evidencing as with the overlying dustjacket only very mild edge and corner shelfwear. Except for the slight age-tanning to the massed closed page edges and the edges of the pages inside the overall condition of the book is entirely consistent with otherwise "new" (albeit "shelfworn") stock from a traditional brick-and-mortar shelved bookstore environment wherein new books might show minor signs of shelfwear or faint "injuries", consequence of routine handling and simply the ordeal of constantly being shelved, re-shelved, and shuffled about. Satisfaction unconditionally guaranteed. In stock, ready to ship. No disappointments, no excuses. PROMPT SHIPPING! HEAVILY PADDED, DAMAGE-FREE PACKAGING! Meticulous and accurate descriptions! Selling rare and out-of-print ancient history books on-line since 1997. We accept returns for any reason within 30 days #1977.1f.

PLEASE SEE IMAGES BELOW FOR SAMPLE PAGES FROM INSIDE OF BOOK.

PLEASE SEE PUBLISHER, PROFESSIONAL, AND READER REVIEWS BELOW.

PUBLISHER REVIEW:

REVIEW: Scandinavians of the Viking Age answered the mysteries of life in their myths and legends. Folklorist Helene Adeline Guerber brings to life the gods and goddesses, giants and dwarves, and warriors and monsters of these tales in Myths of the Norsemen. Ranging from the comic to the tragic, the myths tell of passion, love, friendship, pride, courage, and betrayal.

Helene Adeline Guerber was born in Mount Clemens, Michigan, in 1859. With the exception of her education, for which she went to Paris, France, she lived most of her adult life in New Jersey, where she died in 1929. A teacher by profession, Guerber devoted her life to educating her fellow citizens about European literary and cultural history through the publication of about three dozen books on a vast array of topics ranging from famous operas to Jewish history to Shakespeare's plays. “Myths of the Norsemen from the Eddas and Sagas”, originally published in 1895 under the title “Myths of Northern Lands”, was her second book.

PROFESSIONAL REVIEWS:

REVIEW: Wonderful collection of age-old tales assembled by noted scholar and folklore expert. Myths tell of the creation of the world; the deeds of such gods and heroes as Odin, Thor and Siegfried; the machinations of the evil Loki; and more. Entertaining and readable, these tales offer a striking presentation of the ancient Germanic and Scandinavian myths that have helped shape the literature and cultures of the modern West.

REVIEW: A collection of myths that tell of the creation of the world, the deeds of such gods and heroes as Odin, Thor and Siegfried, the machinations of the evil Loki, and more. Entertaining and readable, these tales present the ancient Germanic and Scandinavian myths that have helped shape literature. This is a fine place to start on the road to Norse myths. There is a deeper more troubled path to take for to truth and origins of the myths but this book makes for a comprehensive fjord from which the longships of Viking enthusiasm may launch.’

READER REVIEWS:

REVIEW: This book gives you something other books on Norse mythology do not. It contains 64 superb black and while illustrations which, for those who love mythology, are worth the price of the book alone. Also, this volume contains the most dramatic and compelling retelling of Ragnarok I have ever found. In this book, the myths are partly stories and partly explanations of what stories and their characters mean. So it does not feel that you are actually reading tales. For a more "direct" reading of the tales I use Crossley-Holland's "The Norse Myths."

Also, I thought that too much was made of similarities between Greek and Northern mythology at the end of this book. Some comparisons feel artificial and strained. But one should keep in mind that this book was originally written in the 1920s, when linguists were very impressed, some would say "scandalized," by the apparent common origin of most European and some Asian languages. These languages, which today include all but three European languages, belong to the so-called Indo-European or Indo-Aryan group. It does appear that a number of characters in the Greek and Northern myths had a common Indo-Aryan prototype, but as already said, some similarities are farfetched and artificially constructed. The book contains a comprehensive index.

REVIEW: I suppose that a pagan trying to use this book as a catechism might find doctrinal errors, depending on their particular denomination. Whether or not the book provides a proper interpretation of the original sources, it is a good read, a trove of information, and a particularly interesting analysis of the similarities between Greco-Roman and Norse mythology. The book falls somewhere between "encyclopedia of Norse mythology" and "Norse mythology for beginners”. It is a work that is simple to grasp and thoroughly laid out for the reader. The index and glossary cover it all, and make finding things easy. The illustrations go well with the book and you can get an idea from the artist's perspective, the outward meaning that the myths try to convey. Beauty, form, courage; the images in the pages help when reading to children, and the wording is easy enough for even the young to grasp. Don't miss this book!

REVIEW: A fantastic, east-to-read, and inspiring book concerning Norse Mythology and beliefs and customs of the Northern peoples. This book covers almost all the gods and goddesses of the Norse pantheon, along with comparison of Norse and Greek Mythology and illustrations. I recommend this book to people who follow the Northern pagan path (Asatru), it will introduce you to gods/goddesses, and many pagan customs of our ancestors. Guerber also covers many pagan customs such as the Yule-feast, the Yule-log, and Easter. Trust me, you will not be disappointed!

REVIEW: This is an excellent, easy to read, and fun introduction to Northern Mythology. Guerber covers a huge amount of ground concerning the folklore and mythology of Northern Europe(not just the Norsemen as the title implies). The illustrations in this book are outstanding. It is an excellent compilation of the Nordic World-View. It describes many beings, events, and items and then references them with their original sources. A particularly enjoyable aspect of the book is that is uses an older, more scholarly language. A wonderful addition to any Norse collection!

REVIEW: This is a great compilation of the myths and legends of the old Norse. Full of the great stories pulled from the eddas. This book encouraged me to actually begin to study the eddas. The book has got to be one of the most informative books on Norse mythology currently available. Each chapter went into great detail about Odin, Thor, Freya, etc. to the point that if you buy just one Norse mythology book for your library, this should be it. I'm going to read it again shortly just because there is so much excellent information in this tome. The highest recommendation!

REVIEW: This book is easy to read and contains lots of info on the Norse Gods and Goddesses, along with the legendary stories of their journeys and classical sagas. It also explains how some of the myths may have got started and what they symbolize, and contains 64 illustrations. For me, what I liked best about the book was the description of a spirits journey to Niflheim. I never could find much detail on it, but this book tells you all about the Norse's beliefs of the afterlife. So far, this is the best book on Norse myths that I've read!

REVIEW: This is an excellent book considering its age (originally published in1909). Though a well versed Nordic reader would find the many cracks in its "Translation", it never the less is an excellent ground book for a student to get the general feel for the lore of the "Norsemen". I would suggest though that you read the Edda's and sagas for yourself, this book will provide a decent starting point for students or enthusiasts interested in learning about the Nordic myths and sagas.

REVIEW: I could not put this book down once I started reading it. Great stories, well told, and wonderful illustrations to boot. It really is a good read for someone who is just starting to learn about Norse Mythology, though it might be a tad basic for experts in the field. The style is charming and readable, and there's a wealth of information to pursue. Guerber does some editorializing here and there, and the final chapter which attempts to draw parallels to Greco-Roman mythology was a waste of time. Nonetheless I consider this a good book to start a study of Norse mythology; it's an easy read, and if nothing else at least it tells you what to look for as you continue your reading elsewhere.

ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND:

VIKING HISTORY: The Vikings were diverse Scandinavian seafarers from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark whose raids and subsequent settlements significantly impacted the cultures of Europe. Those impacts were felt as far as the Mediterranean regions and Russia during the period from 790 AD through about 1100 AD. The Vikings were all Scandinavian but not all Scandinavians were Vikings. The term Viking applied only to those who took to the sea for the purpose of acquiring wealth by raiding in other lands. The term was primarily used by the English writers, not inclusively by other cultures. Most Scandinavians were not Vikings. Those non-Viking Scandinavians who traded with other cultures were known as Northmen, Norsemen, or other terms designating their origin.

Beginning in 793 AD and continuing on for the next 300 years, the Vikings raided coastal and inland regions in Europe. They conducted trade as far as the Byzantine Empire in the east. They even served as the elite Varangian Guard for the Byzantine Emperor. Their influence on the cultures they interacted with was substantial in virtually every aspect of life. This was most notable in the regions of Scotland, Britain, France, and Ireland. They founded Dublin, colonized Normandy (“land of the Northmen”) in France, established the area of the Danelaw in Britain, and settled in numerous communities throughout Scotland.

Although popularly imagined as warriors wearing horned helmets, this is inaccurate. Horned helmets would have been impractical in battle and were most likely only worn for ceremonial purposes. Further although the Vikings were great warriors, the fact that their name in the present day is almost synonymous with warfare, slaughter, and destruction is an association encouraged by popular media representations. The Scandinavian culture was actually highly developed and the Viking raids on other nations were only one aspect of the civilization.

Their settlements in Iceland and Greenland spread Scandinavian culture far across the North Atlantic. Those settlements placed them in an ideal position for further exploration and colonization. The Vikings were the first Europeans to visit North America and establish communities. The Newfoundland site of L’Anse Aux Meadows has been positively identified as an early Viking settlement. Debate continues as to whether other sites from Maine to Rhode Island – and even further south – are evidence of early Viking habitation or at least visitation in North America.

The origin of the word 'Viking' is still debated by scholars. The traditional view is that Viking comes from the Norse “vik”. The term denoted a cove or small fjord, i.e., a place where pirates could lurk and prey on merchant ships. Some philologists however hold that the word derives from the Old Norse for “pirate”. Yet other scholars postulate that the term must come from the region of Viken, which flanked the Oslo Fjord. That region was of great value for it was there that the Danes obtained the iron that was produced in Norway. They insist that the word Viking originally referred to the inhabitants of Viken.

Cultures other than the English all referred to these same people by different names – but none called them Vikings. The Irish records call them pagans or simply foreigners. The French called them Northmen. The Slavs called them the Rus (which gave Russia its name). The Germans knew them as Ashmen in reference to their use of ash wood for their boats.

The Vikings used the word themselves to refer to the activity of armed raids on other lands for the purpose of plunder. The Old Norse phrase fara i Viking (“to go on expedition”) had a distinctly different meaning than going on a sea voyage for the purposes of mere trade. When one decided to “go Viking” one was announcing one’s intention to join in raiding profitable targets in other lands.

The Viking culture was Scandinavian, with society divided into three classes. The three classes were the Jarls (aristocracy), Karls (lower class), and Thralls (slaves). Upward mobility was possible for the lower classes but not for slaves. Slavery was widely practiced throughout Scandinavia and was considered one of the prime motivators for the Viking raids on other lands.

Women had greater freedoms in Scandinavian/Viking culture than in many other cultures of the time. Women could inherit property, choose where and how to live if unmarried, represent themselves in legal cases, and own their own businesses (such as breweries, taverns, shops, and farms). Women were the prophetesses of either the goddess Freyja or the god Odin and interpreted the gods’ messages for the people. There were no male religious leaders.

Marriages were arranged by the men of the clan. A woman could not choose her own mate, but neither could a man. Women’s dress and jewelry were similar to men of their social class, and neither sex wore earrings which were thought to be affectations of lesser races. Women were responsible for raising children and keeping the house but both men and women prepared meals for the family.

Most Scandinavians were farmers. However there were also blacksmiths, armorers, brewers, merchants, weavers, luthiers (those who made stringed instruments), drum-makers, poets, musicians, craftsmen, carpenters, jewelers, and many other occupations. A significant source of income was trading amber which they possessed abundance. Amber (the fossilized resin of pine trees) frequently washed up on the shores around Scandinavia. It was worked into jewelry or sold in semi-processed form, especially to the Roman and Byzantine Empires.

Scandinavians enjoyed leisure time as much as any other culture and played sports, board games, and organized festivals. Sports included mock-combat, wrestling, mountain climbing, swimming, javelin-throwing, hunting, a spectacle known as horse-fighting (whose details are unclear), and a field game known as Knattleik. Knattleik was similar to hockey. Their board games included dice, games of strategy along the lines of chess, and chess itself.

Contrary to the popular image of the Vikings as filthy and savage, they were actually quite refined and paid a great deal of attention to hygiene and appearance. Once trade was established with the east, Viking Jarls often wore silk and expensive jewelry. They braided their hair and were well groomed. Their attire included fine cloaks and intricately-crafted jewelry in the form of necklaces, armbands, and wristbands.

Cleanliness was not only a sign of wealth and status but also had religious significance. Vikings made sure to always keep their finger and toenails short because of their belief in Ragnarok. Ragnarok is a series of events, including a great battle, foretold to lead to the death of a number of great figures (including the gods Odin, Thor, Týr, Freyr, Heimdallr, and Loki). This eclipse of the gods was followed by natural disasters and the submersion of the world in water. At that point in time it was believed that the ship Naglfar would appear floating on the waters unleashed by the great serpent Jormungand. Naglfar was built from the nails of the dead. Thus anyone who died with nails unpared provided ship-building material and hastened the inevitable end.

Ragnarok, the end of the world, was predestined. However one could still struggle against it. The gods of the Norse provided the people with the breath of life. It was then up to each individual to prove worthy of the gift. The Norse gods came to Scandinavia with the Germanic migrations sometime around the beginning of the Bronze Age (approximately 2300 - 1200 BC). These were fierce gods who understood their time was limited and lived fully to make the most of it. The gods encouraged their followers to do the same.

The main sources for the Norse religious beliefs are the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda. The Edda is dated to oral traditions of the 9th and 10th centuries CE. The Prose Edda’s origin dates to about 1220AD. It is a collection of tales based on older stories. In the Norse creation story, before the world was created there was only ice and a giant named Ymir. Ymir lived by the grace of the great cow Audhumla. Audhumla fed Ymir milk which ran continuously from her four udders while. At the same time Audhumla licked the ice for her own sustenance. Her licking freed the trapped god Buri who then produced a son, Borr.

Borr married Bestla, daughter of Bolthorn the frost giant. She gave birth to the gods Odin, Vili, and Vé. These gods united, killed Ymir, and used his body to create the world. The first human beings were Ask and Embla. Neither had spirit or form until life was breathed into them by Odin. The other gods were responsible for installing reason and passion into the new human beings.

The world created by the gods was understood as an enormous tree, known as Yggdrasil. It included nine planes of existence. The most famous of these are Midgard (home for mortals), Asgard (home of the gods), and Alfheim (home of the elves). Another realm, Niflheim was located beneath Midgard where those who died poorly went. Heroic women, especially those who died in childbirth, went to the Hall of Frigg in Asgard. There they spent eternity in the company Odin’s wife. Men who died heroically in battle went to Odin’s hall of Valhalla.

The entire universe was established on the principles of order by Odin and the other gods after they had defeated the frost giants. The frost giants lived in their own realm, Jotunheim, but were a constant threat to both Asgard and Midgard. At some point in the future, a great day of destruction would come and chaos would be unleashed. This future day was known as Ragnarök, the twilight of the gods.

When Ragnarök came, the sun would be swallowed by the wolf Skoll and the moon by his brother Hati,. The world would be plunged into darkness. At the same time the great wolf Fenrir would ravage through all the planes of Yggdrasil. The god Heimdall would sound his great horn, calling the gods to battle. Odin would call up all the heroes from Valhalla’s halls to join with the gods in defending creation. The gods fight valiantly. However in the end they fall in battle as the entire universe is consumed in flame and sinks into the primordial waters. Although this is the end of the world, it is not the end of existence. Once the present world was destroyed, a new one would be created and rise from the waters. The entire cycle then repeats itself.

The Norse gods were honored through the actions of the people who believed in them. No evidence of a religious hierarchy has been found in Scandinavia prior to the coming of Christianity. Women who were touched by the gods were known as Volva. It was believed that they were able to hear the divine words and translate them for other mortals. Although there were some temples erected to the gods, most worship seems to have taken place in natural settings which had some connection to a certain deity. The stories of the gods, creation, and Ragnarök were transmitted orally. They were only written down much later, in Iceland by the 13th century historian/poet Snorri Sturluson.

Norse mythology would profoundly influence the Viking culture and encourage their raids. This is because the Viking life emulated that of the gods. Brave warriors went abroad to do battle against forces they saw as chaotic and dangerous. The Mediterranean and European religious belief in a single god and his savior son who needed priests, churches, nuns, books, and rules to be worshipped would have seemed absurd and threatening to the Vikings. There was nothing in the Christian teaching which resonated with Norse ideology. Once the Scandinavians had fully mastered shipbuilding and began to “go Viking,” they showed no mercy to the Christian communities they encountered. However early Scandinavian settlers in foreign lands frequently adopted Christianity.

Carvings from Scandinavia dated to between 4000 and 2300 BC show that the people already knew how to build boats. These small ships were driven by paddles, had no keel, and would have made long-distance trips perilous. Still there is ample evidence that such journeys were made. Shipbuilding developed past this stage of small ferry boats only around 300-200 BC. They would not develop further until interactions with Roman traders and Celtic and Germanic merchants using Roman maritime technology. This occurred somewhere between 200 and 400 AD. Athough it had no sail, the first ship able to navigate the sea easily is known as the Nydam ship. It was built in Denmark around 350 to 400 AD.

A number of Scandinavian traders established permanent communities in Europe long before the development of keel or sail. They had assimilated with the Christian culture, forsaking their old religious practices, forgetting the stories of the Norse gods. By 625 AD the West Germanic kinsmen of the Scandinavians had converted to Christianity. Between 650 and 700 new Christian cultures emerged in England, in the Frankish world, and in Frisia (present-day Netherlands). This led to a parting of the ways between the Scandinavian heartland and the new states in the former Roman Empire.

This “parting of the ways” was largely due to differences in religious understanding and behavior. The Christian god was alleged to be omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent. This was a significant departure from the Norse gods who. Like other pagan religions each Norse god had their own area of expertise, their own lives and concerns. Each god’s actions explained the observable world in a way the Christian god did not. For the Vikings the universe was full of gods and spirits and supernatural energies. These entities infused a challenging world of adventure. While, to the Christians the world was ruled by one deity who presided over a fallen world of sin. This difference in world views influenced how the Vikings dealt with the Christians they encountered on their raids.

It would have been considered dishonorable for a Norse warrior to kill unarmed civilians and take their possessions. But this is precisely what the Vikings did between 793 and approximately 1100 AD. They felt at liberty to so do because those they plundered were not Norse. Those they plundered and murdered were not participants in the same belief system. Thus the rules which maintained Viking society did not apply to their victims. When the Vikings first came to Britain and sacked the priory of Lindisfarne in 793AD, they murdered every monk they found and carried off everything of value. This would have been considered a serious crime if the slain had been Norse. However under the circumstances the monks to the Vikings were simply obstacles to the acquisition of wealth. Further it was abundantly clear that the Christian god had no power to defend his people if they could so easily be killed within the walls of their own place of worship.

Like those of the Huns on the Roman Empire centuries earlier, the Viking raids on Christian communities were interpreted by European Christians as God’s wrath on his people for their sins. In Britain late 9th century King Alfred the Great would institute his reforms in education to better his people and appease his God. He also made baptism into the Christian faith a stipulation of treaties with the Vikings. When Alfred defeated the Viking army under Guthrum at the Battle of Eddington in 878 AD, Guthrum and 30 of his chieftains had to submit to baptism and conversion.

In the early 9th century Charlemagne in France pursued a much more active course in attempting to forcefully Christianize the Scandinavians through military campaigns. His campaigns destroyed sites sacred to Norse belief and established Christianity as an enemy faith of a hostile people. Charlemagne’s efforts have been cited by a number of historians as the primary motivation for the savagery of the Viking raids. However this claim does not take into account the raids on Britain and Ireland decades earlier between 793 and 800 AD.

There is little doubt however that Charlemagne’s evangelical holy wars did little to encourage Scandinavian acceptance of Christianity. They only led to animosity and greater division. In the early years of the Viking Age in Europe, the sea-raiders began as little more than pirates. However the Vikings would eventually arrive as great armies under charismatic and skilled military leaders. They would conquer large territories and establish communities. And finally these Viking hoards would assimilate with the local population.

The Viking Age is known for legendary Norse leaders such as 9th century Halfdan Ragnarsson (also known as Halfdane), his brother Ivar the Boneless, and Guthrum. The 10th century was notable for Norse leaders such as Harold Bluetooth and his son Sven Forkbeard. Notable Norse leaders of the 11th century included Cnut the Great and Harald Hardrada (1046-1066). Other notable Norse explorers of the time were early 11th century Eric the Red and Leif Erikson, both who explored and settled Greenland and North America.

The Vikings were never defeated en masse in battle and no single engagement ended the Viking Age. The date agreed on by most scholars as the end of the Viking Age is 1066 AD when Harald Hardrada was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. However Viking raids continued after this date. There were many factors which contributed to the end of the Viking Age. The Christianization of Scandinavia throughout the 10th and 11th centuries was certainly among the most significant. The Norse religion was the last of the great pagan belief systems to fall to Christianity. Once it did there was no inspiration in the new faith for one to "go Viking" anymore.

The Vikings influenced the culture of every nation they came in contact with and in every conceivable way from architecture to language, infrastructure to poetry and place names, military reforms to food and clothing, and certainly in the areas of warfare and shipbuilding. Regularly depicted by medieval writers as marauding bands of murderous heathens, the Vikings would be re-imagined as noble savages by the early 20th century CE, and this is often how they are still portrayed in the present day. The Vikings were actually neither of these, however; they were a cultured and sophisticated warrior class who understood, based on their religious belief, that in raiding other lands for personal gain they had everything to win and nothing to lose [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

VIKING WOMEN: Although women in the Viking Age (790 to about 1100 AD) lived in a male-dominated society, they were far from being powerless. Viking Women they ran farms and households. They were responsible for textile production. They moved away from Scandinavia to help settle Viking territories abroad stretching from Greenland, Iceland, and the British Isles to Russia. It’s possible they were even involved in trade in the sparse urban centers. Some were part of a rich upper class, such as the woman, perhaps a queen, who was buried in the ostentatious Oseberg ship burial in 834 AD. On the other end of the spectrum slaves were taken from conquered territories during the Viking expansion. Amongst them were many women, who were integrated into Viking Age society.

History is largely dependent on piecing together the lives of Viking Women based mostly on the archaeology of burials and the accompanying grave goods. This includes an occasional runestone that mentions women or was commissioned by one. From those finds researchers know a fair amount about Viking Age women’s clothing, jewelry, and personal items. However much less is known about their effective ‘power’ or the status they held. The landscape was predominated by small rural communities or even remote self-sustaining farmsteads.

It follows then that the domestic tasks that were mainly the domain of women were clearly far from unimportant. While their men were away trading or pillaging monasteries along the Northern European coasts, the wives who stayed behind likely took over control of the farm. Over the past few years researchers have even investigated the possible existence of female Viking warriors. However the evidence is quite controversial and inconclusive.

One of the less obscure areas when it comes to the lives of women in the Viking Age is their clothing and jewelry. Courtesy of archaeological excavations of burials and their accompanying grave goods, we know that most women seem to have worn outfits comprised of two or three layers. The first layer was a linen or woolen sleeved shift or underdress. It was fastened at the neck with a small disc brooch and sometimes pleated there, too. On top of this a strapped gown or overdress was worn. It was usually made of a rectangular piece wool which was wrapped around the body. It was held up by shoulder straps which at the front of the dress were pinned down by two oval brooches.

Also known as tortoise brooches these oval brooches are typical for Viking Age material Culture. When archaeologists find such brooches in graves, a Scandinavian link is usually present. The brooches varied hugely in style. More than 50 styles have been identified. As one researcher postulated, "the differences may reflect changes in fashion. But it is more likely this enormous diversity shows an arcane language of class and regional affiliation we can no longer understand." Alternatively, box brooches could also be used to fasten shawls and the likes. Both types of brooches were usually made of bronze and adorned with knotted patterns.

The types of textiles held in place by them could vary greatly too. The range of textiles ran from simple domestic wool to fine oriental silk in the proximity of trading hubs such as Birka in Sweden. Interestingly, the varying qualities of cloth were often present in one and the same (rich) grave. Besides these practical items women in the Viking Age also wore necklaces, arm rings, trefoil buckles and trefoil brooches. The latter were very distinct, made up of three ‘arms’ poking out, embellished with knotwork and/or filigree. Beads are also commonly found in Viking graves.

Although a few trade centers did exist, Viking Age homes were mostly located in smaller rural hubs and at isolated farms. A large degree of self-sufficiency would have been needed to survive. A typical Viking Age house was made up of one long room with a central hearth. It could be accompanied by a dairy, sheds, barns, and other outbuildings. Mostly resigned to this domestic sphere, one historian commented, "women living in rural areas in the Viking Age spent most of their time in the triangle of cowshed, dairy, and living quarters, providing their families with food and clothing".

Food had to be prepared from whatever raw state it came in, quite unlike running to the supermarket. Textile production and the subsequent making of clothes were elaborate processes that almost all Viking Age women were involved in one way or another. The most common grave goods found in female graves from this period are spindle whorls, wool combs, and weaving battens. This is especially true of grave goods from what were rural areas. Other tasks that do not show up in the archaeological record in such a direct way but are traditionally associated with women are child-rearing and caring for the sick or the elderly. Historians also envision women performing chores and odd jobs around the farm, perhaps even some carpentry or leatherworking.

How exactly children were brought up and whether girls were treated any differently from boys is unclear, although daughters were perhaps be given in marriage at an appropriate age. Women may have had a good degree of control over running the household and were likely left in charge of matters while their husbands were away (or died). Like their contemporaries, although subordinate to their husbands women likely had a high degree of responsibility.

Perhaps they even were in control over the running of the household. This was symbolized by the fact they were often buried with keys. Some historians have suggested farms were like firms, "run by husband and wife together. The work of both partners was of equal importance although different and complementary." It must be acknowledged however that people who owned larger farms and more land would have had considerable means. They would likely have belonged to the upper classes within society. As such they were not automatically reflective of all of Viking Age society.

Throughout Viking Age society marriage was a pivotal institution used to create new ties of kinship. This included marriage to (non-Viking) Scandinavians as well as locals in conquered or settled areas. Commensurate with the influence women could wield through their husbands, it seems unmarried women had very limited prospects. Before the advent of Christianity throughout Scandinavia and Viking territories around 1000 AD the possession of concubines (often connected to slavery) as well as multiple marriages occurred at least among the royals. In general however it is hard to comment on the exact status of Viking Age housewives. Their domestic role was a very central one. It seems likely that it would not generally have gone unappreciated.

The inscription found on a stone as Hassmyra is the only verse found on a Swedish inscribed stone that commemorates a woman. It certainly seems to confirm this. “The good farmer Holmgaut had this raised in memory of his wife Odindis. A better housewife will never come to Hassmyra to run the farm. Red Balli carved these runes. She was a good sister to Sigmund.”

There were a few trading centers in Viking Age Scandinavia where a lot more hustle and bustle must have been the norm. Families there would have lived slightly different lives than their more isolated and rural counterparts. The largest of these centers were Birka in Sweden, Ribe in Denmark, Kaupang in Norway, and Hedeby in present-day northern Germany (on the southern edge of Viking Age Denmark). Whereas in the countryside women were often buried with spindle whorls, female graves unearthed at Birka, for instance, hold needles, scissors, and tweezers. Even merchants’ weights, scales, and coins are not uncommon in female burials. These artifacts hint at fine sewing and mercantile endeavors as female occupations.

These female grave goods have been found not just around other urban centers in Scandinavia but also in Viking territories across what is now Russia. These archaeological finds strongly imply that Viking woman had also been traders. However directly linking grave goods to actual activities in life is always a bit uncertain. It’s impossible to be absolutely certain of the intentions with which the grave goods were included in a burial. One historian cautions, “…we need to consider whether grave goods really represent the former lives of the dead, or whether some of them could not in fact have more of a symbolic function. The presence of weights in children’s graves does not necessarily mean that they engaged in trading activities too…”

A woman buried with weights and scales may simply have belonged to a family of merchants. As has been proposed by other historians, it’s not necessarily an indication that she herself was an active merchant. As with many things regarding women in the Viking Age there is just not enough information to provide a degree of certainty with regard to precisely what an urban Viking Age woman’s life would have looked like. However women in trade centers would certainly have been more directly connected with the wider world. These connections would not merely have been through the inflow of “exotic” trade goods, but also through visitors.

Illustrating this is a surviving ancient account that coveys how in the 9th century a Christian mission was sent to Birka and successfully converted the rich widow Frideburg and her daughter Catla. The two then decided to travel to the Frisian market town of Dorestad. If some women were indeed involved in trade this may conceivably have placed them in the upper rungs of society, or least given them means and status. Evidence of the lifestyle of the Viking Age’s rich and powerful reach the modern world in a number of ways. Illuminations their lifestyle include large runestones that were erected across Scandinavia. Excavations of burials ranging from just “rich” to ones so over the top it leaves us no doubt as to the buried person’s importance.

Archaeological excavations also establish that the rich and famous were not exclusively male. In the obviously royal Oseberg boat burial dating to about 834AD two women were buried in a lavishly decorated and furnished ship. They were also accompanied by lots of high-quality grave goods. Large stones covered in runes and ornamentation usually erected to commemorate the dead were normally commissioned by wealthy families. They were known as “rune stones”, the runes speaking of their endeavors in life. Not only can one imagine women being important within these families, some stones were actually commissioned by women themselves. The evidence creates at least the suggestion that (perhaps a very few) women attained a very high social status.

Runestones also illustrate how important the inheritance of a woman was to facilitate the transfer of wealth from one family to another. Furthermore, some richly furnished female graves (and even boat graves) found in rural settings hint at women possibly climbing to high social positions there as well. As described earlier, there is strong evidence that women might have ended up running the farm in their husbands’ absence. Some 40 graves from Scandinavia and beyond have provided evidence supporting this supposition. Texts and sagas related to the Viking Age also speak of the existence of female 'sorceresses'.

These sources describe Seiðr, a type of shamanistic magic mainly connected to Viking women. These women were often described as volva, powerful sorceresses possessing a staff of sorcery and with the power to see into the future. Objects similar to the sorcery staffs described have been discovered in Viking Age burials. They possess clear symbolic overtones. According to one historian’s interpretation these objects may have function as metaphorical staffs used to 'spin out' the user's soul.

The graves in which these symbolic objects have been found are often rich in terms of clothes and grave goods. They have often been found to include amulets and charms, exotic jewelry, toe rings, and the remains clearly showed that the women had facial piercings. In a handful of these graves even psychoactive drugs such as cannabis and henbane have been found. No matter how much scientists speculate and postulate, these women's roles in Viking society remains a mystery.

Archaeologists have excavated a number of royal female burials. The Oseberg boat burial is amongst the most prominent. The few obviously royal burials uncovered by archaeologists cannot be mistaken for anything other than the monuments of persons with enormous status, wealth and power. Although they share characteristics with other Viking Age burials, they are really in a class of their own. The relationship these two women may have shared in lifer is indeterminable. They could have been queen and handmaiden, two aristocratic women related to each other, or otherwise. Their relationship will likely always remain a puzzle. But the fact that at least one of them was of high status is undeniable.

Another woman of plentiful means was the late 9th century Aud the ‘deep-minded’. Historical accounts indicate she was born to a Norwegian chieftain residing in the Hebrides and married a Viking who lived in Dublin. After the death of both her husband and son she took over control of the family fortunes. She arranged for a ship to take her and her granddaughters first to Orkney and the Faroes. Then finally they traveled to Iceland where they settled. In Iceland she distributed land among her retinue. She became an early Christian. Today she is remembered as one of Iceland’s four most important settlers.

At the top of the elite category were Viking Age queens. Some were on a smaller local scale, as the big unified Scandinavian kingdoms did not fully crystallize until the end of the Viking Age. Some of them were likely very well-connected. All Viking Age women likely exercised influence through their husbands or sons. The more important their husbands were the more opportunities this may have presented for the women at their sides.

In the wake of the Viking raids spilling across northern Europe and beyond, Viking territories sprung up as far apart as Greenland, Newfoundland in North America, and Russia. It is obvious that proper settlement is a hard thing to achieve without women. With their famous “trademark” oval brooches, female Viking Age burials have been excavated throughout all of these areas confirm their presence.

It is both difficult to conceive of women taking an active part in the Vikings’ initial raiding waves and military expeditions. It is also difficult to find any tangible evidence that this occurred. However late 9th century Anglo-Saxon and Frankish sources relate how Viking forces traveled together with their women and children. Archaeological finds at winter camps such as that at Torksey (England) do reveal evidence of textile manufacture. Of course such families or camp-followers need not necessarily have been Scandinavian women. Viking armies raided both the continent and the British Isles. Likely they would have picked up at least some of the women from there. However whether this scenario was common is unclear as well.

On the other hand more clarity arrives with the first proper settlement waves. Settlement dates varied with different Viking territories. However Scandinavian immigrant families arrived in the British Isles in phases during the 9th and 10th centuries. Toward the end of the 9th century Iceland was settled, shortly thereafter followed by Greenland and beyond. These latter areas were fully Scandinavian except for some influx of often female slaves, for example, taken from Ireland. On the other hand in the British Isles as well as throughout Russia there was more mixing with the pre-existing populations.

For instance on Orkney the 9th or early 10th century burial of the so-called “Westness Woman” is of a Norse woman in her twenties along with her newborn child. She was buried with grave goods which included a pair of bronze oval brooches as well as a Celtic pin. A rich Scandinavian female grave on the Isle of Man (the ‘Pagan Lady of Peel’) shows an even stronger image of a mixed community . The grave is mixed with thirty-odd Christian runic monuments. Those monuments are essentially Celtic crosses with runic inscriptions, including both Norse and Celtic personal names. The Celtic crosses feature Scandinavian-style ornamentation.

The famous Icelandic sagas of the 13th century relay stories set in the earlier Viking Age. They add another possible layer of depth to the role of women. The sagas describe strong women taking action, stoking up revenge, standing up to their husbands or even engaging in fights. However these sagas were composed centuries after the time they wrote about. They were written from a different context and perspective. Thus it is simply too much of a stretch to directly extrapolate this imagery of women and impute it to actual conditions of the Viking Age.

Nevertheless the stereotype of a ‘strong Viking woman’ runs wild in popular imagination. It even infects academics. A study of a Viking Age grave originally found in Birka, Sweden in the 1800s came to the conclusion that the grave contained proof positive of a female Viking warrior. The bones were identified as female, and the burial was alongside various weapons and horses. One would presume these to be the attributes of a warrior. However the skeleton had no traumatic injuries, not something one would expect from an active warrior. And the remains showed no sign of strenuous physical activity or well-developed musculature.

Again, it is a difficult leap to link grave goods to a person’s actual life. In this instance the woman most likely was buried with warrior’s gear for another reason, perhaps symbolic. As of yet the archaeological and historical evidence is not sufficient to confirm this Birka woman having been an active warrior. Here, too, the lives of women in the Viking Age remain more shrouded in mystery than that of their male counterparts [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

THE ANCIENT NORSE-VIKING DIET: In many media depictions of Vikings a group is often seen gathered around a flaming pit while an animal of some type, usually a boar, turns on a spit above. While the people of Scandinavia certainly ate meat, it was not a central part of their diet. They seem to have relied more on dairy products, fruits, and vegetables. The Norse diet, including those known as Vikings, was far more diverse than how it is represented in modern-day media. The historical and archaeological evidence indicates that their diet included a wide range of food types.

The most common foods were:

---Dairy products (milk, cheese, curds, whey).

---Grains (wheat, rye, barley, oats).

---Fruits (strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, crabapples, apples).

---Nuts (hazelnuts and imported walnuts).

---Vegetables (peas, beans, onions, cabbage, leeks, turnips).

---Fish (as well as eels, squid, seals, and whales).

---Meat (cows, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, chickens, ducks, seabirds).

Salt was expensive to make as the usual method would be to boil down salt water. This required a significant amount of timber for the fire. It also required a significant amount of time and effort to complete the process. Salt was more often imported, making it a luxury not everyone could afford. Meat then had to be consumed shortly after the animal was killed because for most there was no means of preserving it. The foods most commonly stored were dairy products sealed in barrels or ceramic jars (especially skyr, a kind of yogurt), dried fruit and vegetables, and grains.

The most common drink was ale, for both for men and women, as well as for children. Popular as well was an alcoholic dairy-based beverage known as syra. Syra was a by-product of making skyr (yogurt). Mead (a honey-based drink) and wine from grapes (imported from places like Germania or Francia) were both expensive. The cost for either was out of reach for most. Scandinavian wines were fruit-based (apple wine, strawberry wine). Like ale, syra, and mead, wines were initially made by women.

The Norse of Scandinavia and the Viking raiders who traveled on raids overseas required a significant amount of energy on a daily basis. The diet described above seems to have been sufficient to sustain those activities. There is little evidence to suggest that the Vikings were underfed or suffered from nutritional deficiencies. Historians deduce that an adequate supply of food must have been available year-round, at least most of the time. When the Norse went on raids abroad they carried enough provisions for the trip and for at least a few meals once they reached their destination. Afterwards the raiders would have lived off the land.

While at home the evidence suggests a plentiful supply of food was provided by each person’s farm and the surrounding environment. Agricultural technology in Scandinavia was fairly primitive during the Viking Age. The metal plow was unknown in Scandinavia. Fields were cultivated using an ard-plow. The ard was a light plow with a wooden spiked share which cut the soil. It was pulled by an ox and steered by the farmer. The scythe was also unknown and fields were harvested using small hand-scythes. The most common Scandinavian dish was skyr. Skyr is a variation on yogurt. It is still produced and consumed in the present day, especially in Iceland. Skyr would be flavored with berries, apples, or other fruits as well as with grains which were also easily preserved.

It was not just the lack of technological innovations which made farming so difficult. There was also a short growing season, lack of steady sunlight, as well as the basic nature of the environment. One historian noted, “in Norway, geographical factors, such as considerable differences in elevation and the limited amount of arable land, made it difficult to survive solely on crop growing”. The people therefore relied more on hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry. Cows were kept for their milk; and the cheese, curds, and whey that could be made from that milk.

The most common Scandinavian dish included or was solely skyr. Skyr may have been popular but does not seem to have been one’s preferred meal if there were other options. It was regarded more as a common staple, and was thought a paltry offering to a guest. A a number of Icelandic sagas in which skyr features as a telling detail to the detriment of the character of a host. Still, skyr was a staple of the Scandinavian – especially Icelandic – diet.

Grains were made into ale, mead, and bread, and there is plentiful evidence of fermented grains kept in ceramic pots. Fermentation of grains produced a sour-tasting bread and resulted in the popular sour bread still enjoyed today. Scandinavians also ate the eggs of chickens and ducks as well as the fowls themselves. These were often slow-cooked into a stew over a fire, with assorted vegetables and herbs.

Evidence of the consumption of fruits and vegetables comes primarily from archaeological excavation, in which seeds or even preserved fruits have been found. Excavations at a number of sites have been able to determine the difference between cultivated fields and kitchen gardens which would have been used by the woman of the house in preparing meals. There is also evidence in the form of an abundance of walnut shells at certain sites strongly suggesting they were a popular snack even though they would have had to be imported. Likewise peaches, also an import, were popular as a flavoring, in wine-making, and as a dried snack.

The kitchen garden seems to have focused on both vegetables and herbs. Kale and gale were the most common vegetables in these gardens. However sage and possibly the opium poppy were also grown. Both would have been grown most likely for medicinal or ritualistic purposes. Sage was both in ancient and contemporary times thought to be a potent herb for use in cleansing a home of bad spirits. Cultivated fields produced turnips and a variety of legumes as well as onions, cabbage, and celery.

Aside from the vegetarian diet, Scandinavians took full advantage of the rivers, streams, and the sea. Fish from fresh and salt water as well as eels, squid, seals, walruses, and whales were eaten frequently. Seafood could be preserved through drying or fermenting in brine and remained fresh as a staple food. Whales are mentioned a number of times in the Icelandic Sagas. However the are almost always as having been washed up on the shore and killed and harvested there rather than hunted.

Both whale and seal meat were considered delicacies and the oil was used for lamps. In the case of seal oil it was an alternative to butter. As with other creatures hunted for food, every part of the whale was used for some necessary aspect of life. However to actually go and hunt a whale was considered too dangerous. The Colloquy of Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham (written about 1000AD) relates the story of a Norse fisherman discussing his daily routine. He began by boarding his boat and casting his net into the river, followed by a hook, bait, and basket. He sells his fish to the people of nearby towns who eagerly buy his eels, pike, minnows, turbot, trout, and lampreys.

Sometimes the man fishes in the sea, but not often. It takes a lot of rowing to get there. When he does fish in the sea, he catches herring, salmon, porpoises, sturgeon, crabs, flounder, and lobster, among many other things. When asked why he does not catch whales, the fisherman replies that it is very risky to go after whales. He explains that it is far preferable to catch a small fish that can easily be killed than to chase a large animal that can kill him with a single stroke.

Fish and other sea creatures were also used in stews. Stews were one of the most popular meals because the cauldron containing it could be left over a fire to keep for days. However fish were also preserved through salting, drying, smoking, or fermenting in brine. The Norse also harvested dulse, a red alga. This came from the seashore. Dulse was an important source of vitamins and frequently included as part of one’s daily diet.

Fishing was such an integral aspect of Norse life that it frequently features in the Icelandic Sagas as a plot device. The mention of livestock in the sagas is also noteworthy. However cattle were kept primarily for milk production and working the land (in the case of oxen). They were not kept as a major food source. All evidence suggests that cows were only slaughtered after they had stopped giving milk. The same was true of sheep with respect to wool production, and to goats. They were slaughtered when they were old and no longer productive.

Most meat dishes came from wild game that was hunted such as rabbits, wild boar, elk, deer, seabirds, bear, reindeer, and squirrels. Pigs were kept as a meat source. Horse meat was also eaten only rarely as horses were highly prized and very expensive. Dogs and cats were kept as pets and companions and were never a food source. The Norse valued the cat and dog so highly that one of the most popular goddesses, Freyja, rides in a chariot drawn by cats. Dogs were thought to accompany their masters into the afterlife. In fact more dog skeletons have been found in Norse graves than in those of any other culture.

Seabirds were frequently caught and eaten. However some birds were strictly off limits as game. Most notably these were hawk and falcon, which were prized by royalty, and could command high prices. Meat was prepared in a number of ways but was most often boiled (as were many other dishes). Boiling food was the most common means of preparation because one could complete other tasks while the food was cooking and the meal could feed a large number of people. The meat would be cut up and put into a cauldron over fire, to which, presumably, would be added various spices and vegetables.

The result could be a stew or simply boiled meat with vegetables, served with a chunk of bread. Meat might also be cooked over an open fire on a spit, as in the famous contemporary Hollywood depictions of Viking meals. Meat was also slow-roasted in soapstone pots placed on hot stones in a pit. Family meals were eaten in a common room of the house. This meal was often either a stew served with bread or, in Iceland at least, skyr and cheese with bread.

The Norse ate two meals a day: one, the dagveror (day meal) shortly after waking in the morning. The other, the nattveror (night meal), was eaten in the evening, roughly around 9:00 pm. These meals were served in wooden bowls and eaten with wooden spoons. Everyone had a personal knife which was an all-purpose tool. At the table it served as both knife and fork. The fork as we know it was unknown in Scandinavia during the Viking Age. However a pointed stick was sometimes used for the same purpose.

The family would gather at a table in the central room of the house and sit on benches. Most tables were of rough wood but wealthier families had crafted and polished wooden tables covered by a linen table cloth. Aside from the daily meals, there were ritual feasts. These might be at weddings and funerals or to seal a business contract. And of course there was the famous sumbl, the Viking drinking party. The sumbl involved far more drink than food. As with the meal in one’s home, the sumbl was prepared and presented by women.

One could not have a meal without a drink, and one would not have had the drink without women. One historian noted, “serving the drinks was the defining role of women in the Viking Age”. Women were also the first brewers and wine-makers until, as in other cultures, men became involved and eventually dominated the process. Ale, mead, and wine were made in roughly the same way. A cauldron or vat would be filled with water and placed over a fire to heat. Then honey was added and yeast (for mead). The mixture was brought to a boil. The vat was then placed beneath some sort of fruit-bearing tree to catch the wild yeast.

To make ale the honey was left out and malted barley was substituted. To make wine fruit was used instead of barley. Alcohol content was regulated by the amount of sugar added (from tree sap). Honey was supplied by bees which were kept in special hives on the property. Aside from tree sap honey was the only sweetener available in Viking Age Scandinavia. Once the ale or mead was brewed it was left to settle and then strained into ceramic jugs and stored. Neither ale nor mead was carbonized because the vat (and later jugs) were not air-tight.

The brew would be left alone while the brewer returned to the cauldron or vat to process the dregs for making barneol, ale for children. Everyone, of every age, drank alcohol for health reasons since alcohol was so much safer to drink than water. The most popular alcohol was ale. Even so mead was considered the drink of choice if one could afford it. The primary difference between ale and mead was honey. Not everyone could afford their own private hive of bees or the time and effort it would take to locate a hive in the wild. Wine made from grapes was the most expensive alcoholic beverage because it had to be imported. Wine was so rare and expensive that it was said to be the only drink of Odin, chieftain of the gods and also the Norse God of Alcohol.

Besides these drinks, there was syra. Syra was a sour brew by-product of making skyr or the buttermilk known as misa. Syra was made from skimmed milk and rennet (curdled milk from the stomach of a newborn calf). It was left to ferment for at least two years before it could be served. Like skyr, syra was a popular and cheap drink but it was not considered honorable to offer it to guests. The Norse placed a high value on hospitality. Hosts were expected to offer guests only their best in food and drink. If the host had ale or mead in the house merely offering a guest syra was a serious social offense.

Clearly there was far more to the Norse and Viking diet than just the roast boar turning on the spit. Contemporary depictions of Vikings are routinely of savage, disheveled warriors whose diet and personal hygiene were the least of their concerns. In reality Vikings actually took an acute interest in both. Excavations of ancient fortifications, homesteads, and communities include sifting through ancient garbage pits and toilet facilities. These reveal that the Norse diet was quite varied and no doubt healthier than that of most people living in the modern day.

All of the food consumed by the Norse of Scandinavia was made and served fresh. The lack of means for preservation meant that animals slaughtered were consumed quickly. Even when meat or fish was preserved, it was probably eaten a short time later. The foods most often preserved for long periods, such as through the hard months of winter, were grains and dairy products (like skyr) or bread. There was no need for any particularly restrictive diet because the Norse were quite active. To maintain the energy for such a lifestyle food was probably eaten in great quantities at a sitting.

As with all other aspects of life to the Norse, food was a gift from the gods. It was meant to be enjoyed. It was even better in the company of friends and family. Even the most meager meal was prepared with the possibility of uninvited guests appearing at one’s door who would require hospitality. Even the most mundane meal would be celebrated through the companionship of those around the table [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

ANCIENT VIKING SHPS: Viking ships were built by the Scandinavians during the Viking Age (about 790 to 1000 AD). These ships were used both within Scandinavia and beyond for many purposes. These uses ranged from being the most important means of transport to trade to use in warfare. Equally significant, Viking expansion would not have been possible without ships. One of the most famous images connected with the Vikings is that of the dragon-headed longships. Red-and-white striped sails gave it deadly speed in its mission to carry bloodthirsty warriors to their destinations of plunder.

However Viking ships came in many different forms, not just longships for transporting marauders. There were also big-bellied cargo ships. Indeed the speedy longships which facilitated raiding and gave the Vikings the edge over their contemporaries. But they did not always possess the intricately carved dragon-heads that are so entrenched in popular imagination. Unfortunately the archaeological record paints a rather patchy picture. Wood does not always stand the test of time very well. History’s knowledge of early Viking Age ships comes almost exclusively from a handful of ship burials. Sunken ships are generally of the later Viking Age.

Scandinavians cannot travel very far without having their journey impeded by innumerable rivers, lakes, fjords, various straits, and open sea. Early on Scandinavians came to reply on watercraft to facilitate travel. Depictions of ships in stone (in burial settings) and metal are dated to the period between 4000 and 2300 BC, initiated by the use of wooden war canoes in the Bronze Age. The addition of sails is what turned Viking ships into the quick and deadly conveyances that became essential to their raiding strategies.

The earliest extant find discovered is a plank-built vessel is 65 feet l and 6 feet wide. The Hjortspring war canoe was found in southwest Denmark and dates to about 350 BC. The next big find is that of the Nydam ships. These were three boats preserved in a sacrificial deposit in Denmark. The largest of the ships was about 78 feet long, about 11 feet wide, and dated to about 350 AD. The ships used oars instead of the earlier paddles. They already showcased the lapstrake (or clinker-built) technique, in which the hull planks overlap. Both the oars and lapstrake technique were carried forward into Viking times.

Although before the Viking Age most boats had their planks lashed together, iron rivets began being used by some pioneering shipbuilders as early as the 3rd century AD. Iron rivets was another element that would become central to Viking ships. By the time the Viking Age came around the basic idea behind producing something that would not sink at the merest glimpse of water had thus long since taken shape. Viking shipbuilders created watertight shells by first laying the keel and stems. They then built up overlapping planks riveted to their neighbors one by one (the lapstrake technique).

This shape was then further stabilized by ribbing which was inserted inside the planking. This whole construction method is known as shell building. It resulted in very sturdy ships. It was the universal method employed to build ships throughout northern Europe. It remained so all the way through until the late Middle Ages. The addition of oars and sails gave Viking boats an advantage over all other watercraft of their day in speed, shallow draft, weight, capacity, maneuverability, and seaworthiness.

Viking boats were designed to be dragged across long portages as well as to withstand fierce ocean storms. Such ships gave the Vikings the ability to trade, make war, carry animals, and cross open oceans. At the same time they provided sufficient protection and security for the crew. Without sails Viking exploration across the sea would have been profoundly more difficult. Sails were actually a rather new element that only (re)appeared in Scandinavia towards the end of the 7th century. This was likely due to increased mercantile contacts with northern Europe, where sails were very much in fashion.

The addition of sails is what turned Viking ships into the quick and deadly contraptions that became essential to their raiding strategies. Access to enough sturdy timber to satiate the Vikings’ heavy demand for ships was not much of an issue in woodland-covered Scandinavia. However oak was the first choice for ship-buildiong, and it did not grow in the northern parts, where pine was used instead. Saws were unknown in northern Europe until the 13th century. Scandinavian craftsmen created planks by splitting tree trunks that were differently shaped depending on where they were to be used in the ship.

Floor planks were deep and narrow towards the keel. Then they turned broad and flat towards the tops where more flexibility was required. Iron was used both for tools and for fastenings such as rivets. It was plentiful enough that even farmers with a decent degree of wealth could source enough materials and manpower to build themselves a ship. With the Viking raids kicking off just before 800 AD it’s obvious by then the Scandinavians were capable of producing seaworthy, sailing vessels.

For archaeologists the problem is that most of the early Viking ships discovered on the ocean floor are decayed beyond recognition. In terms of tangible remains the contemporary impression of Viking ships is visually ruled by the rich ship burials containing the Oseberg (834 AD), Gokstad, and Tune (about 900 AD) ships found in Oslo fjord in Norway. The Oseberg ship is the earliest preserved Scandinavian sailing ship. It’s 71 feet long, 1 feet wide, and has room for 15 pairs of oars. It is broader and deeper than for instance the slender Nydam ship and the slim longships that would appear towards the end of the 10th century.

Beautifully decorated with wood-carvings, the Oseberg was probably associated with the lofty tops of society. Although the ship was seaworthy and has all the main Viking ship features, it was not yet as capable as later ships. The already much more seaworthy Gokstad was a little larger and considerably deeper. It also possessed oarlocks. Even sailing ships benefited from retaining oar-support. Both of these seem to have been fairly robust and all-round vessels that could be used in both warfare and for transport purposes. The Tune ship was sort of a sized-down version of the Gokstad, with a similar purpose.

However more dedicated warships were also around at this point in time, with the term knarr seemingly indicating early warships with backward-curving stems. Examples include the small warship from Ladby, Denmark found in a ship burial dated to 925 AD. This ship is lower, slimmer, and faster than the Oseberg and Gokstad ships. The ship demonstrates that by the end of the 9th century specialized ship-building was already occurring throughout Scandinavia. The warship’s main purpose was not to fight sea-battles (although these did occasionally occur).

Rather its main purpose was to navigate sheltered waters. Its mission was to transport its fearsome warrior crew to a point of interest. Then to drop them off and then swiftly return to pick up the warriors and their loot back up again when the moment came. On the other hand bigger-bellied all-rounders could properly handle open waters and could carry both people (warriors or not) and goods. Properly specialized cargo ships do not appear in the archaeological record until the 10th century. This is also when warships become longer and more slender to the point they can confidently be called longships and begin to appear more frequently than before.

Old Norse terminology also reflects specialization/differentiation at about this juncture in time as well. The term “knar” is now used to denote the new cargo ships. The new cargo ships also had backward-curving stems, explaining why the term might carry over from earlier warships. Longships were called “skeidar” if they were extremely long, serpent- or drakkar ships when dragon-heads were present, and “snekke” when slightly smaller. Generally seen as one of the most important points of shipbuilding progress in the later Viking Age, cargo ships relied heavily on the sail. They were able to be manned with a small crew, but nonetheless had a large carrying capacity. Dated to about 1025AD the Hedeby ships for instance may have been able to hold a cargo weighing as much as 60 tons.

Longships on the other hand used both oars and sails to reach the frighteningly high speeds. Those high speeds were instrumental to the Viking raiders’ hit-and-run tactics. They were also narrower than most of the ships from the early Viking Age. From a historical/archaeological perspective ships have to be at least five times as long as they were wide to be classified as longships. This distinction is according to the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, Denmark. Roskilde 6 is the longest known longship. It dates to about 1025 AD. Roskilde 6 had a length CE and with its staggering length of 119 feet. The ship is a perfect illustrative example of how longships were made ever longer during the Late Viking Age.

These two longship subtypes remained in use throughout the rest of the Viking Age. There is also plenty of indications that a wide variety of smaller boats would have been found in Scandinavian waterways. The two types of longships reflect changes in Scandinavian society which took place during the 10th century. Kingdoms expanded and the power of kings and chieftains rose. Because of the abundance of water and waterways, political power was inextricably connected with maritime might. This magnified the political significance of longships.

At the same time towns grew out of earlier trading centers. They took in larger and larger quantities of trade goods. These goods needed to be profitably transported. The need for transport was not merely limited to those markets close to home, but also to the North Atlantic Viking territories such as Scotland and Iceland. People, cattle, and useful supplies were obviously also not going to swim those distances. Dedicated open-sea traversing cargo ships were clearly required.

With Viking ships ready to scoot across any sort of distance, it obviously helped if its crew knew where to go. When staying close to the coast, navigation was generally not that much of an issue. Directions highlighting landmarks such as funny shaped cliffs and the amount of time between certain points would usually suffice. The Vikings often enhanced such features with stone cairns erected on top of them. However Atlantic voyages were a different matter altogether. Viking mariners could sail for days without sighting land at all.

The compass, sea-chart or logs do not seem to have been known or used in Viking navigation. Instead when traversing these long distances best guess is that the Vikings tried to island-hop. If island hopping was not feasible, then they attempted to at least get within sighting range of known islands functioning as landmarks. Knowledge of sun and stars, common wave- and wind patterns, the way clouds behave over land, and the appearance of birds and sea mammals all helped out too.

The northern skies were too light during summertime for stars to be visible. However the sun was not an absolutely reliable navigation aid either. Fog could cause ships to get disoriented at sea. There are references to a gemstone known as iolite which would have color depending upon its orientation to the sun – even if the sun was obscured by fog. Using such a stone would at least allow bearings to be determined relative to the sun.

However firsthand experience on the routes the Vikings sailed must have been irreplaceable. We can only imagine the uncertainty a Viking crew must have faced on first-time exploration journeys. Fierce Erik the Red who would famously colonize Greenland is a prime example. Erik lost more than half of his ships during his first journey to Greenland. The remaining half were pushed back towards Iceland or wrecked altogether.

Some useful Viking routes included from Denmark to the Mediterranean, which was an entirely coastal affair. Another was from northern Denmark to England, which took two or three days. Also from western Norway to Scotland or the Irish sea. This route would probably have been via the Shetland and Orkney Islands. There would have been only limited stretches of open sea. However there were then the true long-haul, open-sea routes from Norway or Ireland to Iceland and Greenland.

The early 14th-century Icelandic Hauksbók manuscript has instructions on how to get from Norway to Greenland. It cites older instructions as well, and together they render a good picture of the techniques and experiences Viking sailors had access to. The focus of the written material is to provide very detailed descriptions which incorporate landmarks along the way to help out coastal navigation and for use on the open seas.

Ships were clearly pivotal to Scandinavian society as a whole. In a landscape with so many waterways ships were used by every social class, including the highest. Viking rulers heavily depended on ships to reach (and consequently exercise control over) all the nooks and crannies along their territories’ coastline and rivers. These same waterways moreover provided a much more convenient way of transporting goods. They also facilitated quicker communication than overland. And of course communicating across longer distances to overseas settlements could only be achieved using ships.

Culturally Scandinavian ships emphasize their cultural significance through the many ship burials that have been unearthed across Scandinavia. The burials even predate the Viking Age. The simplest symbolic form was graves marked by stones laid out in the pattern of a ship. Occasionally and more spectacularly, actual full-fledged ships were stuck into the grave-mounds. Imagine a trench with a ship inside it, then covered by a mound. Generally at least one human body buried was inside it. He or she was typically interred in a small chamber amidships or laid out on the deck.

An enormous variety of grave goods and personal possessions accompanied the dead. These were subject to great regional variation. Animal sacrifices were also common. The the richest Viking grave ever found was the Oseberg ship burial. The burial included as many as 20 decapitated horses alongside its human occupants. Those human occupants included a noblewoman and what most historians believe was her handmaid. Sometimes the ceremonial burials were of burnt vessels. Viking ship burials in particular (as distinct from non-Viking Scandinavian burials) seem to be connected with human sacrifice. Many ship-related graves contain people who were been deliberately killed to accompany the grave’s main occupant. This is evidenced by decapitation, stabbing, broken necks, etc.

Of course Viking expansion and overseas influence would never have been possible without technologically sound ships. Merely in terms of exploration and colonization their ships allowed the Vikings to reach and settle in the British Isles, Iceland, Greenland, through the Mediterranean, and even across to Newfoundland in North America (‘Vinland’). The speed and agility of their vessels coupled with their quick hit-and-run tactics played a key role in warfare. The incorporation of oars and their shallow draft allowed the ships to drop its crew off virtually anywhere, even close to almost landlocked targets such as Paris. This then is where the nightmare-image of dragon-heads descending upon unprepared targets must have really come alive for the Vikings’ victims [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

ANCIENT VIKING WARFARE: During the Viking Age (about 790-1100 AD) Viking warfare and the component raids are inextricably connected with the expansion of Scandinavian influence along the North Atlantic and into the Mediterranean. The Vikings’ heavy use of ships, good strategic mobility and strong grasp on logistics ensured they could cause havoc abroad for years at a time. It was these factors that distinguished Viking warfare from that of their contemporaries. Contrary to public imagination (and the stereotypical depictions portrayed by television of savage berserk-warriors frothing at the mouth and committing unspeakable brutalities), Viking warriors were probably no more brutal than their Medieval peers.

Scandinavian society at the time was not made up of unified kingdoms as we know them today. These only crystallized into those entities towards the end of the Viking Age. Contrary to the contemporary use of the name ‘Viking’ being applied to a general population group, the original meaning of the term is specifically ‘raider’ or ‘pirate’. The original phrase the name is derived from, fara i víking (‘to go on expedition’), specifically referred to armed raids of warriors. They were not merely harmless adventurers, but rather to a specific population subset who unleashed their swords and axes upon profitable objectives abroad.

The majority of these raids were undertaken by individual war-bands that teamed up on an ad hoc basis. Leadership ranged from small, local chieftains to earls and kings. The Vikings’ characteristic hit-and-run tactics were bolstered by the establishment of over-wintering bases. From these bases campaigns could be launched and more land could be conquered. These eventually lead to the establishment of several full-fledged Viking territories far from the Scandinavian heartlands.

Our current knowledge of Viking weaponry and armor is heavily reliant on the archaeological record. There simply are not many surviving technical descriptions to be found in the sources. Viking weapons included swords (both single- and double-edged), axes, daggers (or a short-sword/sax/seax as common among Germanic peoples around this time), spears, and bows and arrows. Their armor included shields, helmets, and mail shirts. Viking war-bands hailed from all sorts of different regions across Scandinavia. So while there are general trends in weaponry and armor, there was also significant regional variation resulting in nothing which could be described as a standard outfit.

Axes were a typical and very popular Viking weapon. Unlike swords axes may have been used throughout Viking society. They were known mostly from finds of numerous axe-heads. These appeared not only in richer graves alongside other weapons but also as the sole weapon in more austere burials. Their presence perhaps indicating that unlike swords, axes may have been used across a broader economic spectrum. Viking swords were made of iron. They were meant to be held in one hand. They had broad grooves along the centre (‘fullers’) cutting down their weight to some extent.

Double-edged swords coming in at around 90 cm in length seem to have been the preferred standard. They could be beautifully decorated with geometric patterns, motifs of animals. In the Late Viking Age some were decorated even with Christian symbols, in silver and/or copper inlay. A wooden scabbard finished off the set. Because swords were the most costly weapons around at the time they were not in every warrior’s financial reach. The owners of swords must have made a bit of a statement even with the mere possession of such expensive weaponry.

A short-sword or dagger could get its owner out of a pinch in close-quarter combat or as a backup weapon. They were called sax or seax following the Saxon terminology. Other Viking weapons include heavy thrusting spears or lances crafted from iron and sporting leaf-shaped blades. Their shafts were most likely up to 6 or 7 feet long. Bows and arrows also found employment as weapons. Interestingly, the literature also alludes to the possible use by Scandinavians of some sort of siege engines. Their wooden remains would have long since turned to dust, so historians and archaeologists can only guess at their precise design and usage.

Shields were part of the standard Viking weaponry kit. Laws even stated ship’s crewmembers were all required to carry shields. Shields were made of wood and circular in shape. They were probably covered by leather. They came in a variety of distinguishing colors. Chain-mail shirts are known but rare. They were probably too costly to be worn by just any fighter. It’s possible that leather may have been used instead. However it is hard to determine how common leather armor was given the archaeological record (leather decomposes).

Helmets were worn but, contrary to popular depiction, were not horned. A Viking warrior would not much fancy getting a helmet caught in their opponents’ beards or suffering other impractical consequences. The few helmets that have survived show a simple iron design of a conical cap with eye-guards. It’s possible they also included a nose-guard and probably a mail sheet dangling off the back to protect the owner’s neck. It is probable that similarly structured leather helmets were also in use, and may have been more common than iron helmets.

As the 8th century drew to a close in Europe, the first reports of Viking raids trickled in. For example there was a now-famous raid on the monastery at Lindisfarne off the coast of Northumberland. This occurred in what is now England in 793. There followed raids on the island of Rathlin and Iona near mainland Ireland in 795. These early raids were undertaken on a small scale. They were probably conducted by small groups gathered by local-level Viking leaders. They focused on vulnerable, exposed targets such as the afore-mentioned coastal monasteries or trading centers. They typically did not head far inland.

Characteristic was the Vikings’ hit-and-run strategy. They moored their ships on the doorstep of whatever they were attacking. They rounded up valuables and the occasional slave. Then they sailed or rowed off into the distance before any effective defense could be mounted against them. Viking ships were a key element of this form of warfare. Viking ships were extremely fast and light. These characteristics facilitated quick coastal strikes and also allowed them to head up rivers and penetrate inland. By the 830’s a general increase in both the size and the frequency of Viking raids. There were independent reports from Britain, Ireland, and Western Europe as well. The raids in Western Europe were particularly frequent in Frankish territories.

Ramping up the number of ships in their fleets from the earlier handfuls to hundreds, the Vikings now began attacking targets further inland. For instance there were a series of raids in 834-836 on the major trading center of Dorestad. Dorestad was some 50 miles from the open sea in what is now the Netherlands. Viking raids are no longer lead merely by (now) unknown local chieftains. The raids are led by named kings or earls from the upper levels of Scandinavian society. These leaders are not necessarily rulers of large territories. But they are leaders of status within Scandinavia, and are in addition to the lesser chieftains who would also have continued conducting smaller scale raids.

Occasionally ‘great’ war-bands in the late 9th century would be composed of the forces of several kings or earls, jointly lead, implying a merging of smaller independent forces. The apparent lack of formal structure makes their achievements in long-term campaigning and strategic and logistical planning even more impressive. First in Ireland and then also in England, the Vikings also began to over-winter in hostile territories, taking over or setting up bases.

However establishing these winter bases also reduced their much-prized mobility. In Ireland for instance this led to the Vikings suffering quite a number of defeats. And the characteristic of increasing from small-scale to large-scale raiding accompanied by over-wintering was not a pattern that applied equally to all Viking-conquered territories. Danish chieftains settled in Frisia early on in the 9th century and politically resolved conflicts with the area’s Frankish overlordship. In Norse Scotland the Vikings established permanent settlements early on, probably from the start of the 9th century.

Like the rest of early medieval warfare in Western Europe, Viking warfare could not simply ignore the deleterious effects of winter on campaigning and logistics. As such warfare was generally a seasonal affair, as it was during the Roman Republic a millennium before. Initially winters were spent back home in Scandinavia. However as time progressed pattern increasingly transitioned to over-wintering bases and settlements in Viking-held territories abroad. From such settlements the Vikings could participate in local politics, tactfully choosing sides, reaching agreements with their enemies, securing the payment of tribute, and launching new campaigns.

Even when it comes to inland battles the Vikings’ beloved ships remained crucial wherever they could be put to use. The ships had a shallow enough draught to paddle up the larger rivers, carrying anything from men to supplies and loot. This meant that whenever the Vikings campaigned near areas their ships could reach they had no need for annoyingly slow overland baggage trains. However the picture imparted by historical records and archaeology pertaining to the actual specifics of Viking combat in battles is a bit fuzzy. Thus time has left us with little knowledge of specific battle tactics. Those references that we do have suggest that the shield-wall was the most common tactical formation.

Archery was probably also used to break up the shield-wall. The shield-wall was not an ideal position in which to receive arrows. It provided a large target, with little maneuverability). The longbows known to have existed in this period would have penetrated shields and armor, though not necessarily deeply. Horses were used for their mobility, but probably dismounted for battle. Battle standards were carried near the leader or leaders, probably to indicate status.

Some of these standards depicted ravens, such as the one used by Harald Hardrada at Stamford Bridge against the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. Although shouting matches may have sufficed regarding communication in smaller skirmishes, one can of course only shout so loudly. Animal horns may also have been used to bellow out signals. For conveying more articulate orders and information, it is likely messengers would have dashed across the battlefield at high speed.

One Viking force where such communicative measures would have been invaluable is that of the Danish ‘great army’ that razed havoc across England from 865 AD onward. The campaign lasted for years and brought the kingdoms of East Anglia and Northumbria as well as most of Mercia to their knees. Even Wessex, under its leader King Alfred, struggled to resist the Viking forces. However King Alfred eventually won a decisive victory against the Viking forces. The Vikings’ great army disbanded around 880 AD. Its constituent war-bands seemingly jumping to take advantage of a succession struggle in the Kingdom of the Franks. There the flexible and opportunistic Vikings were active between 879-891.

Although history has left us with little knowledge of the precise organization or command structure, a large Viking army would have been composed of several war-bands. Local kings, earls, and chieftains may all have led individual portions of the army. Each likely held specific command roles and probably following some sort of hierarchic order. A good example of this would be the Battle of Ashdown in 871AD wherein King Alfred beat the great Danish army. One of the Danish wings was led by two kings. Historical accounts record that the other was captained by ‘many earls’.

As the Scandinavian kingdoms began consolidate and to take on more unified shapes, kings such as the early 11th century Danish King Sweyn Forkbeard were probably responsible for a more tightly-knit hierarchy. Likely they personally commanded the crews of several ships. The King’s forces would have been augment by the personal forces of their main subordinate chieftains. The total numbers of warriors then easily reached into the thousands.

Connections between the various kinds of leaders, and between them and their crews, could have taken the shape of kinship or personal ties, social ties, or could be loot- or tribute-driven. There probably was no such thing as a systematic levy for Viking fleets. The term leidangr indicated a force directly under control of the king. The term may have as in later times been used to describe just such a force. However the use of the term to specifically denote such forces is only known from sources dating to the mid-12th century and beyond. It’s likely that prior to that time, Viking Age ventures were mainly private affairs.

It is assumed by historians that Viking battle units would have mirrored the crews of ships, i.e., that those crews would have fought together on land as a unit. This makes sense considering the Vikings’ heavy reliance on ships and the sense of companionship amongst fellow crew members. As for the raiders and warriors themselves, they were generally young men. This is in accord with both the historical records provided by Viking sagas, as well as the skeletal remains that have been found. However none of the skeletal remains support the existence of female Viking warriors.

Historical accounts detailing the Vikings’ years-long campaigns in the late 9th century CE paint a picture of adolescents or young adults joining up and remaining active into their thirties and even beyond. The more experienced warriors must have been invaluable. They must have brought to their unit stability and knowledge. Historical evidence has shown that troops may also have been partially drawn from areas outside of Scandinavia. There’s a southern Baltic connection is attested to with regard to garrisons in Denmark. Even the Scandinavian forces active in England in the 10th century were of mixed origins. They did not reflect any kind of homogeneous ‘national’ army.

Contrary to appearances mass media stereotypes, Viking warfare is actually not such a huge anomaly on the early medieval European landscape. Besides the fact that technologically the playing field was fairly level, raiding with the objective of plunder was hardly an exclusively Viking affair. It was quite typical of pre-Viking Ireland and Britain. It was also was widespread throughout Medieval Europe in general, and the classical world as well. Tribute-taking also occurred outside Viking spheres, even being central to relations between kings in early medieval Britain.

Although they were brutal by modern standards, the Vikings were hardly out of place in Early Medieval Europe when compared to other populations. War ships were also used by both the Anglo-Saxons and the Franks. However the Vikings were more innovative on several fronts. The first innovation was their naval technology. They excelled at building faster, more seaworthy ships with shallow draughts. These ships were perfect for lightning-strike hits. The second innovation was the way the Vikings put their ships to use in their archetypal hit-and-run raids.

Other key elements that tie in with this are a strong focus on strategic mobility. Ships were supplemented by the use of horses on land. The Vikings possessed good logistic awareness and capabilities allowing for good supplying on campaign. The development of specialized cargo ships was another key element essential to both the two preceding elements. The Vikings possessed good military intelligence and a nose for picking vulnerable targets, as well as responding quickly to changing situations. The fluid structure of individual war-bands led by private leaders was also an essential element in their success.

Perhaps the most important constituent element in the Viking’s success was over-wintering. The bases built or taken over became supreme rallying points from which to spread out across the surrounding area. For those looking to withstand the combination of these elements direct battle against the Vikings was usually more of a temporary solution. Even if defeated the Vikings would return. Likewise the payment of tribute only bought peace for a while. As one historian pointed out, "it was only when both issues of mobility and supply were tackled that the Viking raids could successfully be contained."

Examples of such efforts employed successfully against the Vikings include fortified bridges used in the late 9th century by Charles the Bald, King of West Francia. The fortified bridges were used to block the Vikings’ access to the rivers. Also in the late 9th century Alfred the Great of Wessex simultaneously employed ship-led coastal defenses and the building of fortified towns (burhs) across Wessex, which eventually halted the Viking advance.

Aided by their swords and ships the Scandinavians greatly extended their influence during the Viking Age. Their sphere of influence extended from the North Atlantic to the Mediterranean, to Russia, and even as far as Constantinople. However contemporary accounts forming their present-day image (especially in popular culture) give the impression that European seas and rivers were positively teeming with Vikings marauders. Viking warriors are often depicted as savage and brutal and, importantly, heathen. They’re depicted as showing no quarter to their unfortunate prey and being disproportionately successful on the battlefield.

These characterizations are not only pulled out of context but also exaggerated or even wrong. Accounts contemporary to these events were often penned by monks. Monks were in the first line of fire when the Vikings started plundering monasteries. It is thus hardly surprising they did not sing the Vikings’ praises. They were outraged at the fact that these heathens attacked churches and slew churchmen, despite the fact that even Christian rulers as well had attacked churches and slain fellow Christians.

Particularly in the early years Viking raids were only sporadic affairs and hardly brought local institutions tumbling down. And although Vikings were brutal by modern standards, their behavior was by the standards of early medieval unexceptional. Historians might remind you that Julius Caesar murdered almost a million (Helvetii) Celts who simply wanted to cross a river while migrating to France. Charlemagne “the Great” put thousands to the sword who would not convert to Christianity. Jews were routinely massacred by “Christians”. And future centuries would see Protestants and Catholics buthering each other over dogmatic disputes.

As one historian summarized the Vikings’ successes on the battlefield, "owe less to the wild warriors of romantic imagination, and more to careful strategies and logistical planning, a skilful combination of warfare and diplomacy, and good underlying organization." The famous berserks who appear in Old Norse literature who in their fury roar, bite their shields, and are invulnerable, are more so fictional literary figures. They may have been based on a cult of masked warriors that existed in Germanic antiquity and are often connected to Odin. However to imagine entire Viking armies of that composition is simply far-fetched. That Viking warriors were effective and recognized as such, however, is reflected in them serving the Byzantine Emperor in the elite corps known as the Varangian Guard [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

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ABOUT US: Prior to our retirement we used to travel to Eastern Europe and Central Asia several times a year seeking antique gemstones and jewelry from the globe’s most prolific gemstone producing and cutting centers. Most of the items we offer came from acquisitions we made in Eastern Europe, India, and from the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean/Near East) during these years from various institutions and dealers. Much of what we generate on Etsy, Amazon and goes to support worthy institutions in Europe and Asia connected with Anthropology and Archaeology. Though we have a collection of ancient coins numbering in the tens of thousands, our primary interests are ancient/antique jewelry and gemstones, a reflection of our academic backgrounds.

Though perhaps difficult to find in the USA, in Eastern Europe and Central Asia antique gemstones are commonly dismounted from old, broken settings – the gold reused – the gemstones recut and reset. Before these gorgeous antique gemstones are recut, we try to acquire the best of them in their original, antique, hand-finished state – most of them originally crafted a century or more ago. We believe that the work created by these long-gone master artisans is worth protecting and preserving rather than destroying this heritage of antique gemstones by recutting the original work out of existence. That by preserving their work, in a sense, we are preserving their lives and the legacy they left for modern times. Far better to appreciate their craft than to destroy it with modern cutting.

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